Electricity Grids

In 2023, power grids received increased attention from policy makers and investors to keep pace with surging renewable power generation and the rising number of interconnection requests.

310

billion USD global investment in grids in 2023

5 %

increase in grid investment in 2023

KEY FACTS

Most of the grid investment in 2023 was in the United States (USD 86.5 billion, or 27.9%) and China (USD 78.9 billion, or 25.4%), followed by Germany, Canada and India.

In most emerging and developing countries, investment in electricity networks was hindereddue to financial and affordability constraints.

In 2023, the world's power networks struggled to keep pace with the surging deployment of renewables and with increasing requests for grid connection. Queues of projects under development continued to grow. During the year, an estimated 1,500 GW of renewable energy projects in the late stages of development or under review were awaiting grid connection, and this figure doubles to an estimated 3,000 GW when projects in the earlier stages of development are also considered. ²⁹

In Viet Nam, the recent growth in solar PV capacity was not supported by adequate capacity in the country's transmission network. As a consequence, further PV capacity additions are expected to be limited to around 2.4 GW to 2030. ³⁰ In the United States, due to connection procedures, it typically takes a project five years from the interconnection request to reach commercial operations. ³¹ Distribution networks also face challenges, including in Germany and the Netherlands, where networks are highly congested. ³²

In advanced economies such as in Europe or the United States, the planning, permitting and implementation of high-voltage and extra-high-voltage overhead lines at the transmission and sub-transmission level can take 10 years or more. ³³ This is much longer than the typical periods required for implementing renewable generation facilities. Other factors contributing to long timelines for grid expansion projects are a lack of integrated planning, regulatory frameworks and funding; supply chain delays and technical difficulties; long permitting procedures and administrative understaffing; and stakeholder opposition. ³⁴ In developing economies, access to finance and the high cost of capital remain key barriers. ³⁵

In 2023, the EU presented an electricity market reform that proposes a two-way Contract for Differenceⁱ mechanism for all new investment in low-carbonⁱⁱ electricity productionⁱⁱⁱ. ³⁶ Within the market design reform, EU Member States are required to assess their needs for power system flexibility – such as demand response and storage to support the integration of non-fossil energy sources – and to define objectives to this aim. ³⁷ The European Commission also presented a 14-point Action Plan for Grids that aims to address structural issues, enhance grid infrastructure, support supply chain standardisation for grids, reduce lengthy connection queues, and attract the estimated USD 636 billion (EUR 584 billion) required in grid investment to reach the region's decarbonisation targets. ³⁸

The Netherlands developed a National Grid Congestion Action Programme that aims to speed investment and reduce connection queues through grid expansion and increased flexibility. ³⁹ In Belgium, a construction permit was issued for the first artificial energy island (Princess Elisabeth Island), which will act as a central energy hub using high-voltage current technologies to connect offshore wind farms with the mainland grid and eventually with power networks in neighbouring countries. ⁴⁰

In the United States, the Department of Energy announced the Grid Resilience and Innovation Partnerships (GRIP) programme, which has awarded projects related to smart grid updates, adaptive networked microgrids, battery storage, flood mitigation of sub-stations, network capacity upgrades, and the hardening of existing transmission lines to increase their resilience to extreme weather events (focusing on disadvantaged communities). ⁴¹ Canada, in its 2023 budget, allocated USD 2.2 billion (CAD 3 billion) over a 13-year period to recapitalise funding for the Smart Renewables and Electrification Pathways Program. ⁴² In South America, Argentina approved a plan to expand the high-voltage electricity transmission system, and Brazil conducted auctions for the expansion of around 4,500 kilometres of power transmission. ⁴³

Under its Green Energy Corridor scheme, India approved the construction of an inter-state transmission system to evacuate the 13 GW of capacity generated at a large-scale renewable energy project in Ladakh. ⁴⁴ Japan developed an expansion plan in early 2024 to connect the capital city of Tokyo to the northern island of Hokkaido, as well as to increase the transmission capacity between the western regions of Kyushu and Chugoku 30% by 2030. ⁴⁵ In 2023, South Africa reviewed its Integrated Resource Plan, which prioritises further development of the transmission grid, among other measures. ⁴⁶

Global investment in power grid infrastructure^iv increased 5.3% in 2023 to reach an estimated USD 310 billion. ⁴⁷ Most of this investment was in the United States (USD 86.5 billion, or 27.9%) and China (USD 78.9 billion, or 25.4%), followed by Germany, Canada and India. ⁴⁸ (See Figure 2.) In most emerging and developing countries, in contrast, investment in electricity networks was hindered due to financial and affordability constraints. ⁴⁹

FIGURE 2. — Source: See endnote 48 for this module.

Global investment in grids increased 5% in 2023.

In the United States, the focus has been mainly on enhancing reliability and upgrading outdated infrastructure, with the GRIP programme receiving USD 3.9 billion in funding for grid modernisation. ⁵⁰ In 2023, the budget of the US Department of Agriculture allocated USD 300 million to help rural electricity providers shift to clean energy, including through transmission updates and energy storage expansion. ⁵¹ California's independent system operator (CAISO) approved a USD 7.3 billion plan to build new high-voltage transmission lines. ⁵²

In China, grid investments continued to grow, particularly for ultra-high voltage transmission projects but also for upgrading the distribution network and digitalising grids. ⁵³ In Europe, investment was focused on connecting offshore wind farms, modernising ageing infrastructure, and digitalising grids to allow for demand-side load management, EV charging and electrification of industry. ⁵⁴ Latvia allocated USD 53 million (EUR 49 million) towards modernising the electricity distribution grid by 2026 through a partnership with the Latvia Electricity Distribution Company. ⁵⁵ Australia included in its 2022/2023 budget a USD 13.6 billion (AUD 20 billion) grant for upgrading and expanding the grid via the Rewiring the Nation Fund. ⁵⁶

Countries worldwide have focused on permitting processes to better respond to changing electricity generation patterns and to ease the connection queues affecting renewable energy projects. The EU's New Renewable Energy Directive, adopted in 2023, offers Member States the possibility to designate and develop “grid acceleration areas” – areas with high renewable energy potential and low environmental impacts – where permitting times would be reduced. ⁵⁷ In the United Kingdom, the transmission system operator announced reforms to improve the connection queue backlog. ⁵⁸

In the United States, the government has outlined faster permitting as a priority. ⁵⁹ The programme Renewable Energy Siting through Technical Engagement and Planning (R-STEP) aims to enhance the decision-making capacity and expertise of state and local governments around large-scale renewable energy planning, siting and permitting. ⁶⁰ The new interconnection rules issued by the US Federal Energy Regulatory Commission aim to reduce backlogs for projects to connect to the transmission system. ⁶¹

Other environmental aspects to consider in the optimisation of power grids include the materials and substances used, such as insulating gases. ⁶² (See Sidebar 1.)

Sidebar 1. Reducing the Use of SF6 Gas to Improve the Climate Footprint of Power Grids

Power networks do not consist only of overhead lines and underground cables. Each connection in a transmission and distribution network includes switchgear, or metal-enclosed components such as switches and circuit breakers that conduct or interrupt the flow of electrical currents. For decades, switchgear has used sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) as an insulating gas. While SF6 allows for the compact and cost-effective design of electrical assets, it is also the most potent greenhouse gas ever used on an industrial scale, with a global warming potential 25,200 times that of carbon dioxide. As atmospheric concentrations of SF6 began to surge in the last century, the gas was targeted under the 1997 Kyoto Protocol and has since been banned and replaced in many applications. However, electrical switchgear has remained one of the few tolerated uses and is now among the major sources of SF6 emissions.

Although substantial progress has been achieved in monitoring, reducing and managing leakages of SF6 from network assets, leakages cannot be avoided completely. A complicating factor is that network assets have a long nominal life of 35 to 40 years and may remain in operation for 60 years or more. Because emissions are likely to occur during this period, policy initiatives aimed at replacing SF6 have been pursued for more than a decade.

Recently, in parts of the United States and Europe, such announcements have been translated to legally binding provisions prohibiting the use of SF6 in new installations. The restrictions apply depending on voltage and current ratings: for medium-voltage switchgear, they apply starting in 2025 in California and 2026 in the EU, and for all voltage and current ratings, they apply starting in 2032 (EU) and 2033 (California).

In 2023, the G7 countries announced their commitment to phase out the use of SF6 in new switchgear applications by 2024. Other countries (such as China and the Republic of Korea) also have implemented regulations to incrementally replace SF6 with alternatives in new equipment.

As manufacturers have anticipated these changes, they have introduced alternatives or announced their discontinuation of SF6 use. A growing range of SF6-free solutions is commercially available or in the prototyping stage. Manufacturers have an interest in scaling up production of new designs and, in the longer term, supporting design convergence to avoid parallel investment in different technologies. This may also affect markets that do not have legally binding restrictions.

The transition away from SF6 presents an added challenge for network expansion, as the gas has long been the de facto standard. In adopting alternatives, companies must make strategic choices with consequences far beyond 2050. Many companies are reluctant to shift because the supply chain remains limited, and there is little long-term operational experience with SF6-free solutions. Initial investments in alternatives may be higher, and new design constraints may apply. Nevertheless, if the network industry wishes to take climate targets seriously, it must move away from SF6. in the EU, manufacturers and project developers of renewable generation technologies (such as wind energy converters or large solar PV plants) are immediately affected by the new regulations. Because these products and projects depend on the use of medium-voltage switchgear, SF6-free alternatives need to be applied in current designs.

Source: See endnote 62 for this module.

Dispatch Down of Renewables

At the operational stage, renewable energy projects are affected by system constraints. In many countries, generation from variable renewables (wind and solar power) has increasingly been dispatched down – reduced or suspended at the request of system operators – to cope with system limitations. ⁶³ (See Box 2.) While some level of temporary curtailment of renewables can be expected in a system that incorporates higher shares of variable generation, minimising the associated yield losses is a key objective of system optimisation. ⁶⁴

If the dispatch down of renewables occurs at times of high demand, the consequences can be significant. During a heat wave in Viet Nam in 2023, network congestion resulted in only 10.5 GW of the country's 20 GW of solar capacity being used on average at peak times. ⁶⁵ In Japan, curtailment reached a record high of 1.76 TWh between April 2023 and March 2024. ⁶⁶ In Germany, curtailment measures reportedly led to an estimated loss of 19 TWh of electricity in 2023, up from 8 TWh in 2022. ⁶⁷

Regional Interconnections

Regional interconnections and market integration can help improve the reliability and security of grids and the quality of supply, while also enabling greater integration of renewable energy and demand-side resources. Sharing surplus power generation and balancing electricity supply and demand across regions can reduce the impact of disruptions and enable the efficient use of resources, supporting a more flexible and robust energy system. ⁶⁸

Regional interconnections help stabilise power networks and enable higher shares of renewables.

Among positive developments in 2023, in South-East Asia the Lao PDR, Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore Power Integration Project (LTMS-PIP) was signed during a side event at the 41st ASEAN Ministry of Energy Meeting in August 2023, along with a memorandum of understanding for 18 potential locations where cross-border transmission lines could be set up. ⁶⁹ (See Snapshot: South-East Asia.) India, co-leader of the One-Sun-One-World-One-Grid initiative, also started discussions to increase its cross-border interconnections with the Maldives, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Sri Lanka and the United Arab Emirates. ⁷⁰

In Europe^v, the Celtic Interconnector project – a 575 kilometre sub-sea interconnector developed by the transmission system operators of France (RTE) and Ireland (EirGrid) – started construction in 2023 and will enable the transmission of 700 MW of power between the two countries. ⁷¹ A project for a 250 kilometre sub-sea cable and 1 GW of connection capacity was also approved to increase interconnection between Italy and Greece. ⁷² Additionally, the EU Connecting Europe Facility (CEF) allocated a grant of USD 331 million (EUR 300 million) to construct a power cable between Italy and Tunisia. ⁷³

BOX 2. Reasons for the Dispatch Down of Renewables

Dispatch down is the action of reducing or stopping energy generation in response to an instruction from the system operator. The reasons for such requests can be curtailment and constraints, and they relate to different limiting mechanisms.

Constraints are caused by insufficient transport capacity, resulting in network congestion. This may apply to distribution, sub-transmission or transmission networks. Weak sections of local networks may require constraints even at low overall penetration of variable renewable energy. These weak spots indicate a potential need for network optimisation. Additionally, significant shares of variable renewable capacity are connected to distribution and sub-transmission networks. This distributed generation is collected at the transmission level, and hence congestion may occur here.

Technologies that allow for dynamic adjustment of line ratings depending on climate conditions help to relax network limitations. During the last decade, those technologies became mature and have been applied successfully in various countries.

Curtailment is related to diverse operational limits of the power system. These limits may depend on the type of power generation facilities that compose the system (e.g., wind, solar, hydropower, coal) and how their technical characteristics can be used to maintain the stability of the system, considering factors such as frequency and voltage control. Such limits become relevant only at high levels of penetration of instantaneous non-synchronous electricity sources. So far, they are of minor relevance in large and interconnected power systems but more relevant for electrical islands. Reported dispatch down of renewables is mostly related to network congestion.

Generation from conventional power plants typically sets an upper limit to generation of variable renewable energy. These plants provide necessary ancillary system services on top of their electricity output. Experience shows that solar and wind power plants can provide ancillary services, for example using grid-forming converters and battery storage. With technology becoming mature and standardised, these barriers for the integration of renewables can be overcome.

Source: See endnote 63 for this module.

Snapshot.SOUTH-EAST ASIA

Harnessing Cross-Border Synergies: The Lao PDR-Thailand-Malaysia-Singapore Power Integration Project and the ASEAN Power Grid Initiative

The ASEAN Power Grid (APG) initiative is working to integrate the power systems of South-East Asian countries through cross-border energy interconnections and harmonised rules. Identified as an area of co-operation for the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1999, the APG seeks to create an integrated regional electricity grid.

Harnessing Cross-Border Synergies: The Lao PDR-Thailand-Malaysia-Singapore Power Integration Project and the ASEAN Power Grid Initiative

The Lao PDR-Thailand-Malaysia-Singapore Power Integration Project (LTMS-PIP), which began operations in 2022, is the first multilateral cross-border electricity trading initiative in the region and serves as a key step towards regional energy co-operation and integration under the APG. This project facilitates the transfer of electricity, via existing infrastructure, from Lao People's Democratic Republic (PDR) to Singapore through Thailand and Malaysia, thereby demonstrating the feasibility of multilateral power trade in the region.

The primary objectives of the LTMS-PIP include enhancing regional energy security and economic efficiency by sharing renewable energy resources across borders, particularly drawing on the abundant hydroelectric capacity of Lao PDR (8,108 MW as of 2023). The initiative will help participating countries meet their climate and sustainability goals by supporting the transition to renewable energy sources. It also creates a blueprint for future multilateral energy trading projects to promote the development of a regional energy market.

Through the LTMS-PIP, Singapore will import up to 100 MW of electricity from Lao PDR. The current agreement runs through the end of 2024, with potential plans to extend it by another three years and to increase imports to 300 MW. Singapore has limited opportunities for domestic renewable energy production due to its small land area; however, the country has ambitious renewable energy targets and plans to import 4 GW of low-carbon electricityⁱ by 2035. Energy imports through partnerships such as the LTMS-PIP will assist Singapore in overcoming its geographical constraints and achieving its targets. The country is also exploring other similar agreements; for example, it plans to import 1.2 GW of wind power from Viet Nam via a sub-sea cable.

In April 2023, construction began on a 600 MW onshore wind energy project in southern Lao PDR. The project is funded by the Asian Development Bank and the Japan International Cooperation Agency and is led by Monsoon Wind Power, a consortium that includes Mitsubishi and ACEN Renewables International, among other companies.

It is the country's first wind farm and will be the largest in South-East Asia. Lao PDR plans to export a portion of the wind farm's generated power through a 65 kilometre, 500 kilovolt (kV) transmission line as part of a 25-year agreement signed with Vietnam Electricity. The project aims to be in operation by 2025 and signifies further potential for cross-border power generation and trade.

Cross-border energy interconnections such as these highlight how space limitations and renewable resource constraints do not need to impede progress towards a global energy transition. They also highlight the importance of effective governance mechanisms and collaboration from participating countries in managing the complexities of multilateral projects.

Source: See endnote 69 for this module.

i Low-carbon electricity includes renewable energy as well as nuclear power, fossil fuels with carbon capture, utilisation and storage (CCUS), hydrogen and ammonia.

An interconnector linking the electricity networks of Egypt and Saudi Arabia by 2025 started its testing phase in 2023. The project is expected to support the exchange of 3 GW of power between the two countries and involves the installation of 1,350 kilometres of sub-sea cables across the Red Sea. ⁷⁴

In Africa, interconnection projects in the feasibility or development stages include the ZiZaBoNa interconnector, which was initiated in 2008 and will link the electricity networks of Zimbabwe, Zambia, Botswana and Namibia; in 2023, the project secured partial funding from the African Development Bank. ⁷⁵ Additional projects in the region include the Zambia-Tanzania-Kenya (ZTK) Interconnector, which is expected to link the Southern Africa Power Pool (SAPP) to the Eastern Africa Power Pool (EAPP), and the MoMa interconnector between Mozambique and Malawi. ⁷⁶

In South America, two of the four main regional interconnection projects made advances in 2023. A 2020-2030 roadmap was signed to advance the development of the Andean Electrical Interconnection System (SINEA), a project started in 2011 and supported by the Inter-American Development Bank that aims to enable electricity exchanges between Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. ⁷⁷ In addition, the roadmap for the Regional Energy Integration of the Southern Cone (SIESUR) initiative – aimed at creating a market for electricity exchanges between Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay – was updated for 2023-2032, focusing on the analysis of regulatory and technical frameworks and currency exchange risk assessment. ⁷⁸

In the United States, the Department of Energy committed USD 1.3 billion to three transmission line projects – the Cross-Tie 500 kV Transmission Line (Nevada and Utah), the Southline Transmission Project (Arizona and New Mexico) and the Twin States Clean Energy Link (New Hampshire and Vermont) – which together will increase the national grid capacity by 3.5 GW. ⁷⁹ Additionally, the DOE released the National Transmission Needs Study and the Transmission Interconnection Roadmap aimed at strategically enhancing transmission infrastructure to support clean energy integration across the country. ⁸⁰

Developing large-scale interconnections involves not only significant funding, but also technical capacity and the alignment of regulatory frameworks and markets. To provide guidance on these complex processes, the Green Grids Initiative released draft Principles for Interconnectors, providing step-by-step guidance to countries for the development of interconnectors. ⁸¹

Grid-Enhancing Technologies

Research and industry have increasingly focused on digitally driven solutions to optimise and increase the capacity of existing power lines.

DLR technology had been deployed or was in the testing phase in more than 25 countries as of 2023.

The maximum loads of power lines are traditionally defined by a static conservative upper limit to prevent overheating. Dynamic line rating (DLR) makes it possible to optimise the loads of power lines by adjusting their availability to their exact capacity at a specific time, considering real-time weather conditions. DLR enables the grid to operate closer to its maximum capacity for longer periods, thus increasing the average load and potentially allowing the avoidance or postponement of network extensions (although it does not increase the absolute line rating). ⁸² As of 2023, DLR technology had been deployed – or was in the testing phase – in more than 25 countries, following the research and development stages of the 1990s and the installation of the first pilot projects in the 2000s. ⁸³

Advanced power flow control technologies can balance the flow on transmission lines by allowing lines with spare capacity to pull more power and thus reduce constraints on overloaded lines. This increases the total current delivered by re-routing the power in real time, thereby enhancing the grid's overall power transfer capacity. ⁸⁴ As of 2023, at least 10 countries were reportedly using or testing advanced power flow control technology, including Australia, Colombia, Ireland, France, Greece, the United Kingdom and the United States; in the United States, two projects awarded under the GRIP programme aim to improve flexibility and increase transfer capacity for renewable energy generation. ⁸⁵

Topology optimisation software identifies reconfigurations of the transmission system that can alleviate constraints by re-routing power flow around these constraints. ⁸⁶ Whereas advanced power flow control actively manages the real-time distribution of power, topology optimisation focuses on strategically adjusting the configuration of the transmission network. As of 2023, projects were ongoing in the United Kingdom and the United States. ⁸⁷

Research on grid-enhancing technologies suggests that these solutions can be much cheaper and easier to implement than the network upgrades that they replace. ⁸⁸ Existing commercial projects in Europe and the United Kingdom, as well as evaluations from the United States, suggest that these technologies can increase grid capacity from a small percentage (for small grid applications) to up to 100% in the case of complex grids with multiple possible routes. ⁸⁹

Demand Flexibility and Time-Variant Network Charges

In many parts of the world, power loads in the residential and commercial sectors have grown rapidly. Markets for new loads – such as electric vehicle charging and heat pumps – are ramping up and are expected to grow further in the coming decade. Congestion in (low-voltage) distribution networks is therefore increasingly a concern. As with transmission, network extension and reinforcement need to be combined with approaches that allow for efficient use of the existing infrastructure. ⁹⁰

In liberalised power markets that have high shares of variable renewable energy, (sub-)hourly electricity prices fluctuate greatly because of the dynamic nature of the residual load and the varying cost structure of the supply. Initial steps have been taken to incentivise load flexibility by translating spot electricity prices to time-varying end-user tariffs. ⁹¹ However, a large portion of end-user tariffs are network charges, and, so far, these are not time variant. At the transmission level, extensive experience exists with location-dependent network charges for generators. ⁹² At the distribution level, network charges for end-users have always been fixed.

Addressing these issues entails several challenges. Historically, low-voltage distribution networks have lacked extensive monitoring and control facilities, making it difficult to assess the actual operational state of network assets. ⁹³

In Germany, the network regulator Bundesnetzagentur has required the industry to propose methodologies for state estimation in distribution networks to improve grid management and efficiency. ⁹⁴ These methodologies must be immediately applicable, without the need for extensive SCADA infrastructure, to facilitate quicker implementation. The goal is to introduce time-variable network charges by 2028, allowing the distribution system operator to better control loads, reduce congestion, and enhance overall grid reliability and efficiency. ⁹⁵

Various countries have implemented programmes to manage and optimise electricity consumption, building on long-established demand-side management (DSM) practices. DSM involves methods to reduce or shift electricity use during peak periods, enhancing grid stability and achieving energy savings. Governments and regulators have long used DSM to reduce peak demand from energy-intensive operations, particularly in industry. ⁹⁶ At the residential level, modern demand flexibility services leverage advanced technologies to expand these benefits. These initiatives showcase how demand flexibility can effectively reduce peak demand, enhance grid stability and provide significant energy savings. ⁹⁷

Through a demand flexibility programme in the United Kingdom, launched in the winter of 2022/23, 1.6 million domestic and non-domestic customers were remunerated for shifting their demand during peak hours, enabling savings of 3,300 megawatt-hours (MWh) across 22 total events. ⁹⁸ The programme was relaunched in winter 2023/24, with participation increasing to 2.6 million customers and savings to more than 3,700 MWh. ⁹⁹ In France, where the transmission system operator RTE awards load reduction through capacity auctions, around 2.8 GW of demand reduction was awarded in 2023 (for auctions in 2024), slightly above the volume awarded in 2022. ¹⁰⁰

In December 2022, the Republic of Korea launched a pilot programme for Auto Demand Response, enabling intelligent appliances to automatically respond to demand reduction requests, eliminating the need for manual input from consumers and resulting in a 24% improvement in electricity savings. ¹⁰¹ The South Korean Energy Pause Programme – launched in 2018 to target households, small shops and businesses – already incentivises electricity reduction during peak periods through financial rewards and discounts. ¹⁰² In Japan, where capacity tenders are open to demand response, 2.3 GW of successful bids were achieved in 2022; during severe winter power shortages, demand response contributed 90 GW in the additional supply capacity market. ¹⁰³

In South Australia, certain types of air conditioners installed from 1 July 2023 must comply with demand response requirements to ensure that they can provide flexibility to the grid; however, consumer participation in demand-side programmes is not mandatory. ¹⁰⁴

Smart metering can increase system flexibility and thereby integration of renewable energy. In 2023, Germany adopted legislation to relaunch the roll-out of smart meters throughout the country, after an earlier law from 2019 failed to result in sufficient deployment. ¹⁰⁵ In Australia, the Energy Market Commission completed a review of the regulatory framework for metering services and was in the process of amending rules to facilitate more efficient roll-out of smart metering technologies. ¹⁰⁶ The regulator released a draft determination proposing a mandatory 100% roll-out of smart meters by 2030 and better access to power-quality data from smart meters, while aiming to improve the customer experience and to implement safeguards to protect customers from potential cost risks. ¹⁰⁷

In the Brazilian state of Paraná, the power utility Copel announced that it had installed half a million smart meters by the end of 2023 across its operating areas, in the first phase of a project to add 1.6 million smart meters in the coming years. ¹⁰⁸ Uruguay launched a tender for smart meters to support a plan by the state utility UTE to equip all residential customers with the units by the end of 2024; the company had deployed 1 million units as of 2023 and plans to expand the scheme to small and medium-sized enterprises. ¹⁰⁹ Costa Rica was awarded concessional funds in 2023 to deploy smart grid projects, including the roll-out of smart meters, aimed at covering two-thirds of the country. ¹¹⁰

In India, the Smart Meter National Programme aims to replace 250 million conventional electricity meters with pre-paid smart meters^vi. ¹¹¹ The roll-out of smart meters enables remote daily meter readings and provides consumers with real-time data, helping them make more informed decisions about their electricity consumption. ¹¹² India also has simplified smart metering rules and reduced penalties for exceeding sanctioned loads. ¹¹³ In 2023, the government introduced a time-of-day tariff that incorporates time variability in electricity prices, offering reductions of 10-20% during specified “solar hour” periods of eight hours per day. ¹¹⁴

The United Kingdom introduced minimum annual targets for smart meter installations for energy suppliers in early 2022. ¹¹⁵ In 2023, the government led a consultation with energy suppliers and other industry stakeholders on its proposal for 2024 and 2025 and set new targets for suppliers to install smart meters in at least 74.5% of households and around 69% of small businesses by the end of 2025. ¹¹⁶

Virtual Power Plants

A virtual power plant (VPP) is a cloud-based network that integrates real-time information on distributed energy resources such as solar panels, wind turbines and energy storage systems to operate as a single cohesive entity. ¹¹⁷ Controlled by software, VPPs provide grid services such as frequency regulation, improving the reliability of the grid by pooling resources, facilitating the integration of renewables and optimising the use of distributed energy according to grid needs and market conditions. ¹¹⁸

The year 2023 was pivotal for the development of VPPs, with substantial advances across regions and companies. ¹¹⁹ (See Table 1.) The global VPP market value for 2023 was in the range of an estimated USD 1.2 billion to USD 2.5 billion. ¹²⁰ In Europe, developments were driven largely by company-level advancements, with no new regulatory policies for VPPs during the year. Norway's Statkraft operates one of the region's largest VPPs, claiming more than 10 GW of installed capacity from over 1,000 power generators. ¹²¹ Another large VPP system in Europe is operated by the Shell-owned German company Sonnen, which announced that its VPP reached a capacity of 250 MWh. ¹²² In the United Kingdom, Flexitricity reported that its VPP asset portfolio had grown to more than 1 GW, making it the country's largest flexible energy system. ¹²³

TABLE 1. Networked Capacity of Selected VPP Operators Worldwide, as of Late 2023

VPP Operator (location of headquarters)	Total Network Capacity (MW)
Centrica (United Kingdom)	16,500
Statkraft (Norway)	10,000*
Next Kraftwerke (Germany)	13,500
Enel X (Italy)	9,400
Autogrid (United States)	8,000
Flexitricity (United Kingdom)	1,000
OhmConnect (United States)	3,550
Tesla (United States)	900
AGL (Australia)	316

*Statkraft claims “more than 10 GW installed capacity”.

Source: See endnote 119 for this module

In the United States, several states and territories have advanced VPP developments through both policy and company-driven initiatives. Maryland lawmakers directed the Public Service Commission to develop VPP pilot programmes, with utilities required to propose pilots by July 2025. ¹²⁴ In Colorado, the utility Xcel Energy aimed to set up a 50 MW VPP by the end of 2024 and already has a programme (Renewable Battery Connect) that discharges customer batteries during peak periods for financial incentives. ¹²⁵ In Puerto Rico, Sunrun was selected by the Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority to deploy a 17 MW solar-plus-storage VPP to enhance the island's energy resilience. ¹²⁶

California adopted legislation that directs the California Energy Commission (CEC) and CAISO to estimate the potential of VPPs and support the state's goal of 7 GW of flexible demand by 2030. ¹²⁷ The CEC's Demand Side Grid Support programme allows private batteries to aid the grid during high demand, with owners of the SolarEdge Home Battery participating in the initiative.¹²⁸ OhmConnect and SunPower Corp. launched a VPP in the service areas of California's Pacific Gas and Electric Co.¹²⁹ In addition, OhmConnect partnered with Google's Nest Renew to create Renew Home, a 3 GW network that now makes up North America's largest residential VPP.¹³⁰

China's policy framework for VPPs has expanded rapidly under the country's carbon reduction plans. As of 2023, projects were under way in multiple provinces, including Hebei, Jiangsu, Shanghai and Zhejiang.¹³¹ Recent initiatives include Ningxia's VPP control platform, which manages five VPPs across 14 industries, and a smart control platform in Yantai, which connects a 242,000 kilowatt (kW) flexible energy system to State Grid Shandong Electric Power Company and the local State Grid branch through a VPP.¹³²

Microgrids

The market for grid-connected microgrids was valued at USD 12.8 billion in 2023.

Microgrids hold significant potential for enhancing grid resilience and ensuring power supply during emergencies such as extreme weather events. Renewables-based microgrids usually consist of solar panels or wind turbines (and sometimes hydropower) combined with energy storage systems and smart control.¹³³ Although microgrids typically operate independently in remote areas, in some cases they can be connected to the larger electricity network and disconnected when necessary.¹³⁴ The market for grid-connected microgrids was valued at USD 12.8 billion in 2023 and is expected to grow significantly due to their recognised potential for improving grid reliability^vii.¹³⁵

In 2023, microgrids were a key component of the GRIPS programme in theUnited States.¹³⁶ In Puerto Rico, researchers from Oak Ridge National Laboratory are testing a “microgrid orchestrator” that would allow microgrids to form a larger network to increase resiliency and enable the integration of more renewable energy.¹³⁷ Networked microgrids can operate independently from the main grid for extended periods, which is vital during prolonged outages caused by severe weather and other natural disasters.¹³⁸

In Canada, the national government and the energy utility Hydro-Quebec announced an additional USD 2.7 million (CAD 3.7 million) microgrid in Lac-Mégantic, which can operate connected to the main grid or in isolation.¹³⁹ Commissioned in 2021, the microgrid powers around 30 downtown buildings and features more than 2,200 solar panels (a total capacity of 800 kW), 700 kW of battery storage, a centralised control system, energy management tools and a bi-directional EV charging station.¹⁴⁰

From a market perspective, energy companies have increasingly proposed the model of “microgrids-as-a service” (MaaS) to industries and to commercial and public buildings such as schools, universities, municipalities, hospitals and even jails.¹⁴¹ The MaaS model consists of a third-party company providing a turnkey service of designing, installing and operating a microgrid on the premises of the customer, and billing for the energy consumed.¹⁴² Examples include the South Australia Produce Market (SAPM), which started operating in 2023; the Mbogo Valley Tea Factory in Kenya, installed in 2022; and the ABB headquarters in South Africa, in operation since 2016.¹⁴³

Module Overview Energy Storage

Footnotes

i This mechanism aims at creating a buffer between electricity markets that are heavily dependent on global fossil fuel prices, and consumer bills. Producers of renewable energy (excluding hydropower with reservoirs) receive payments if market prices fall below a certain level and pay back when prices exceed a certain level, ensuring revenue stability and encouraging investment in renewables. The reform was approved in May 2024.

ii This includes wind, solar, geothermal, and hydro power (without reservoir) as well as nuclear energy.

iii The proposal was approved in 2024.

iv Data from BloombergNEF do not include a breakdown of grid infrastructure. It is assumed that this includes transmission and distribution grids.

v In 2018, the EU set a target for 15% electric interconnectivity by 2030, which is reflected in the National Energy and Climate Plans of EU Member States. See endnote 71 for this module.

vi Through pre-paid metered electricity, consumers pay for electricity before using it, similar to how pre-paid mobile phone plans work. See endnote 111 for this module.

vii Note that this number is global and does not reflect the specific share of renewables-based grid-connected microgrids.

See REN21, “Renewables 2024 Global Status Report: Energy Supply Module”, 2024, https://www.ren21.net/gsr-2024/modules/energy_supply/01_global_trends. 1
See REN21, “Renewables 2024 Global Status Report: Energy Supply Module”, 2024, https://www.ren21.net/gsr-2024/modules/energy_supply/01_global_trends. Box 1 and Figure 1 from the following sources: Ember, “Global Electricity Review”, 2024, https://ember-climate.org/app/uploads/2024/05/Report-Global-Electricity-Review-2024.pdf; Uruguay from Ministry of Industry, Energy and Mines, “Balance Energético Preliminar 2023: El Consumo Del Sector Industrial Creció 20%, Debido a La Puesta En Marcha De UPM II”, 2023, https://www.gub.uy/ministerio-industria-energia-mineria/comunicacion/noticias/balance-energetico-preliminar-2023-consumo-del-sector-industrial-crecio-20; Chile from National Electricity Coordinator, “Sistema Eléctrico Redujo 21% Sus Emisiones En 2023 Y Se Espera Que Siga Creciendo Participación De Energía Renovable Variable”, 11 January 2024, https://www.coordinador.cl/novedades/sistema-electrico-redujo-21-sus-emisiones-en-2023-y-se-espera-que-siga-creciendo-participacion-de-energia-renovable-variable. 2
International Renewable Energy Agency, “Power System Flexibility for the Energy Transition: Overview for Policy Makers”, 2018, https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/%20%20%20%20Publication/2018/Nov/IRENA_Power_system_flexibility_1_2018.pdf; International Energy Agency, “Executive Summary – Electricity Grids and Secure Energy Transitions”, 2023, https://www.iea.org/reports/electricity-grids-and-secure-energy-transitions/executive-summary. 3
Ember, “Global Electricity Review”, 2024, https://ember-climate.org/app/uploads/2024/05/Report-Global-Electricity-Review-2024.pdf; International Energy Agency, “Executive Summary – Electricity Grids and Secure Energy Transitions”, 2023, https://www.iea.org/reports/electricity-grids-and-secure-energy-transitions/executive-summary. See also REN21, “Renewables 2024 Global Status Report: Energy Supply Module”, 2024, https://www.ren21.net/gsr-2024/modules/energy_supply/01_global_trends. 4
International Renewable Energy Agency, “Planning”, accessed 2 July 2024, https://www.irena.org/Energy-Transition/Planning. 5
Snapshot: Europe from the following sources: International Energy Agency, ”Electricity 2024”, 2024, https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/6b2fd954-2017-408e-bf08-952fdd62118a/Electricity2024-Analysisandforecastto2026.pdf; Euronews, ”From Heating Swimming Pools to Vertical Farms, Data Centres Are Proving Useful. But Is It Enough”, 16 March 2023, https://www.euronews.com/green/2023/03/16/from-heating-swimming-pools-to-vertical-farms-data-centres-are-proving-useful-but-is-it-en; Data Centre Dynamics, ”QTS's Groningen Data Centre Contributes to District Heating in the Netherlands”, 20 December 2022, https://www.datacenterdynamics.com/en/news/qtss-groningen-data-center-contributes-to-district-heating-in-the-netherlands; Digital Infra Network, ”Windcloud – A Green Data Centre in the North of Germany”, 18 November 2020, https://digitalinfranetwork.com/windcloud-a-green-data-center-in-the-north-of-germany; Green Mountain, ”Land-based Lobster Farming Will Use Waste Heat from Data Centre”, 22 June 2021, https://greenmountain.no/data-center-heat-reuse; Sandra Laville, ”Energy from Data Centres Could Heat UK Swimming Pools After Green Investment”, The Guardian, 15 January 2024, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2024/jan/15/energy-innovation-could-heat-150-uk-swimming-pools-after-200m-investment; Vicky Allan, ”Edinburgh University Data Centre to Power Heat Network”, The Herald, 24 April 2024, https://www.heraldscotland.com/news/24274011.edinburgh-uni-use-data-centre-power-heat-network.6
International Renewable Energy Agency, “Sector Coupling in Facilitating Integration of Variable Renewable Energy in Cities”, 2021, https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2021/Oct/IRENA_Sector_Coupling_in_Cities_2021.pdf.7
International Energy Agency, “Planning and Strategies – Introduction to System Integration of Renewables”, 2020, https://www.iea.org/reports/introduction-to-system-integration-of-renewables/planning-and-strategies. 8
International Energy Agency, “Planning and Strategies – Introduction to System Integration of Renewables”, 2020, https://www.iea.org/reports/introduction-to-system-integration-of-renewables/planning-and-strategies.9
German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Action, “What Exactly Is ‘Grid Congestion'?” 2018, https://www.bmwk-energiewende.de/EWD/Redaktion/EN/Newsletter/2018/03/Meldung/direkt-account.html. 10
International Energy Agency (IEA), “Capacity of Renewable Energy Projects in Different Development Stages in Connection Queues vs Actual Capacity Additions, 2022”, Data & Statistics, accessed 14 March 2024, https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/capacity-of-renewable-energy-projects-in-different-development-stages-in-connection-queues-vs-actual-capacity-additions-2022; IEA, “Executive Summary – Electricity Grids and Secure Energy Transitions”, 2023, https://www.iea.org/reports/electricity-grids-and-secure-energy-transitions/executive-summary.11
Henry Storey, “Better Late Than Never: Vietnam Releases 2021-30 Power Plan”, Lowy Institute, 29 June 2023, https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/better-late-never-vietnam-releases-2021-30-power-plan; Romain Zissler, “Curtailment Increases Across Japan: Economic Dispatch and Negative Prices Are Key Solutions”, Renewable Energy Institute, 11 April 2024, https://www.renewable-ei.org/en/activities/column/REupdate/20240411.php; Benjamin Wehrmann, “Curtailing of Renewable Power Increases in Germany in 2023 as Re-Dispatch Costs Recede”, Clean Energy Wire, 9 April 2024, https://www.cleanenergywire.org/news/curtailing-renewable-power-increases-germany-2023-re-dispatch-costs-recede.12
See references throughout Electricity Grids section.13
BloombergNEF, “Energy Transition Investment Trends 2024”, 2024, https://about.bnef.com/energy-transition-investment.14
Pablo Hevia-Koch et al., “Co-operation Across Borders Is Key to Building Interconnected Power Systems of the Future”, International Energy Agency, 16 August 2023, https://www.iea.org/commentaries/co-operation-across-borders-is-key-to-building-interconnected-power-systems-of-the-future. 15
See references throughout Regional Interconnections section.16
“WATT”, accessed 26 June 2024, https://watt-transmission.org. 17
John Carey, “‘Grid-Enhancing Technologies' Can Squeeze a Lot More Power from the Existing Electric Grid”, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 121, no. 4 (2024), https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2322803121; Guangchun Ruan et al., “Data-Driven Energy Management of Virtual Power Plants: A Review”, Advances in Applied Energy 14 (1 July 2024): 100170, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adapen.2024.100170; Mou Mahmood et al., “A Comprehensive Study on Virtual Power Plants: Operations, Benefits, Challenges, and Future Trends”, Journal of Recent Trends in Electrical Power System 7 (24 May 2024): 2584-2404, https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11277516; Emi Bertoli, “Demand Response”, International Energy Agency, 11 July 2023, https://www.iea.org/energy-system/energy-efficiency-and-demand/demand-response.18
Rod Walton, “New Infrastructure Act Funding Release: DOE Allocates $3.5B Toward Grid Resilience, Microgrids Nationwide”, Microgrid Knowledge, 19 October 2023, https://www.microgridknowledge.com/government/article/33013434/new-infrastructure-act-funding-release-35b-toward-grid-resilience-microgrids-nationwide; Kathy Hitchens, “Canadian Government, Hydro-Québec to Invest $3.7 Million in Lac-Mégantic Microgrid Expansion”, Microgrid Knowledge, 30 October 2023, https://www.microgridknowledge.com/community-microgrids/article/33013939/canadian-government-hydro-quebec-to-invest-375-million-in-lac-megantic-microgrid-expansion.19
Energy Institute, “Statistical Review of World Energy”, 2024, https://www.energyinst.org/statistical-review.20
Energy Institute, “Statistical Review of World Energy”, 2024, https://www.energyinst.org/statistical-review. 21
International Hydropower Association, “2024 World Hydropower Outlook”, 2024, https://www.hydropower.org/publications/2024-world-hydropower-outlook. 22
Michael Barnard, “Climate Action Needs Less Electricity Storage Than You Think”, Forbes, 28 August 2023, https://www.forbes.com/sites/michaelbarnard/2023/08/28/climate-action-needs-less-electricity-storage-than-you-think. 23
International Renewable Energy Agency, “Sector Coupling in Facilitating Integration of Variable Renewable Energy in Cities”, 2021, https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2021/Oct/IRENA_Sector_Coupling_in_Cities_2021.pdf.24
REN21 Policy Database.25
REN21 Policy Database.26
International Energy Agency, “Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles: A Manual for Policy Makers”, 2022, https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/21fe1dcb-c7ca-4e32-91d4-928715c9d14b/GridIntegrationofElectricVehicles.pdf.27
REN21 Policy Database.28
International Energy Agency (IEA), “Capacity of Renewable Energy Projects in Different Development Stages in Connection Queues vs Actual Capacity Additions, 2022”, Data & Statistics, accessed 14 March 2024, https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/capacity-of-renewable-energy-projects-in-different-development-stages-in-connection-queues-vs-actual-capacity-additions-2022; IEA, “Executive Summary – Electricity Grids and Secure Energy Transitions”, 2023, https://www.iea.org/reports/electricity-grids-and-secure-energy-transitions/executive-summary. 29
Jules Scully, “'Institutional Incongruity' in Vietnam Amid Ongoing Solar Curtailment”, PV-Tech, 5 December 2022, https://www.pv-tech.org/institutional-incongruity-in-vietnam-amid-ongoing-solar-curtailment. 30
Joseph Rand et al., “Queued Up: Characteristics of Power Plants Seeking Transmission Interconnection as of the End of 2020”, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 21 May 2021, https://doi.org/10.2172/1784303. 31
Zsuzsanna Pató, “Gridlock in the Netherlands”, Regulatory Assistance Project, February 2024, https://www.raponline.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/RAP-Pato-Netherlands-gridlock-2024.pdf; E.DIS Netz GmbH, “Netzausbauplan der E.DIS Netz GmbH nach § 14d EnWG”, April 2024, https://www.vnbdigital.de/gateway/files?serviceName=vnb&fileId=6630debe99abd27c97c7cd38&preview=1. 32
International Energy Agency, “Electricity Grids and Secure Energy Transitions: Enhancing the Foundations of Resilient, Sustainable and Affordable Power Systems”, 2023, https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/ea2ff609-8180-4312-8de9-494bcf21696d/ElectricityGridsandSecureEnergyTransitions.pdf. 33
International Energy Agency, “Electricity Grids and Secure Energy Transitions: Enhancing the Foundations of Resilient, Sustainable and Affordable Power Systems”, 2023, https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/ea2ff609-8180-4312-8de9-494bcf21696d/ElectricityGridsandSecureEnergyTransitions.pdf.34
International Energy Agency (IEA), “World Energy Investment 2023”, 2023, https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/8834d3af-af60-4df0-9643-72e2684f7221/WorldEnergyInvestment2023.pdf; IEA, “Electricity Grids and Secure Energy Transitions: Enhancing the Foundations of Resilient, Sustainable and Affordable Power Systems”, 2023, https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/ea2ff609-8180-4312-8de9-494bcf21696d/ElectricityGridsandSecureEnergyTransitions.pdf. 35
European Council, “Electricity Market Reform”, 21 December 2023, https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/electricity-market-reform.36
European Council, “Electricity Market Reform”, 21 December 2023, https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/electricity-market-reform. 37
European Commission, “Commission Sets Out Actions to Accelerate the Roll-out of Electricity Grids”, 28 November 2023, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_23_6044. 38
Yusuf Latief, “Dutch Network Operators Draw Up Grid-Focused National Action Plan”, Smart Energy International, 18 January 2023, https://www.smart-energy.com/industry-sectors/energy-grid-management/dutch-network-operators-draw-up-grid-focused-national-action-plan; European Commission, “Commission Sets Out Actions to Accelerate the Roll-out of Electricity Grids”, 28 November 2023, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_23_6044.39
Elia Group, “Princess Elisabeth Island”, accessed 24 June 2024, https://www.elia.be/en/infrastructure-and-projects/infrastructure-projects/princess-elisabeth-island. 40
US Department of Energy, “Biden-Harris Administration Announces $3.5 Billion for Largest Ever Investment in America's Electric Grid, Deploying More Clean Energy, Lowering Costs, and Creating Union Jobs”, 18 October 2023, https://www.energy.gov/articles/biden-harris-administration-announces-35-billion-largest-ever-investment-americas-electric. 41
Natural Resources Canada, “Smart Renewables and Electrification Pathways Program”, 12 April 2021, https://natural-resources.canada.ca/climate-change/green-infrastructure-programs/sreps/23566. 42
Government of Argentina, “Energía Presentó El Plan de Obras Eléctricas Para Todo El País”, 14 June 2023, https://www.argentina.gob.ar/noticias/energia-presento-el-plan-de-obras-electricas-para-todo-el-pais; Planalto, “Brazilian Government Signs Energy Transmission Contracts Expecting BRL 21.7 Billion in Investments”, 5 April 2024, https://www.gov.br/planalto/en/latest-news/2024/04/brazilian-government-signs-energy-transmission-contracts-expecting-brl-21-7-billion-in-investments; Greenberg Traurig LLP, “Latin America Energy Updates”, May-June 2023, https://www.gtlaw.com/en/insights/2023/7/actualizaciones-en-materia-energetica-en-latinoamerica-mayo-junio-2023. 43
Government of India, Press Information Bureau, “Year End Review 2023 of Ministry of New & Renewable Energy”, 3 January 2024, https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1992732. 44
NHK, “Japan Plans Power Grid Expansion to Promote Renewable Energy”, 25 March 2024, https://www3.nhk.or.jp/nhkworld/en/news/20240325_21. 45
Department of Mineral Resources and Energy, Republic of South Africa, “Integrated Resource Plan, IRP 2023”, 2023, https://www.dmr.gov.za/news-room/post/2150/integrated-resource-plan-irp-2023. 46
BloombergNEF, “Energy Transition Investment Trends 2024”, 2024, https://about.bnef.com/energy-transition-investment. 47
Bloomberg NEF, “Energy Transition Investment Trends 2024”, 2024, https://about.bnef.com/energy-transition-investment. Figure 2 from idem.48
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International Energy Agency, “World Energy Investment 2023”, 2023, https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/8834d3af-af60-4df0-9643-72e2684f7221/WorldEnergyInvestment2023.pdf; US Department of Energy, “Biden-Harris Administration Announces $3.5 Billion for Largest Ever Investment in America's Electric Grid, Deploying More Clean Energy, Lowering Costs, and Creating Union Jobs”, 18 October 2023, https://www.energy.gov/articles/biden-harris-administration-announces-35-billion-largest-ever-investment-americas-electric. 50
International Energy Agency, “Rural Clean Energy Initiative & Support to Rural Energy Transition – Policies”, 30 November 2022, https://www.iea.org/policies/16609-rural-clean-energy-initiative-support-to-rural-energy-transition. 51
Jeff St. John, “California Has a New $7.3B Plan to Fix Its Transmission Problems”, Canary Media, 22 May 2023, https://www.canarymedia.com/articles/transmission/california-has-a-new-7-3b-plan-to-fix-its-transmission-problems. 52
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European Commission, “Renewable Energy Roll-out Ahead of REPowerEU Anniversary”, 13 May 2024, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_24_2489; US Department of Energy, “Renewable Energy Siting Through Technical Engagement and Planning”, accessed 25 March 2024, https://www.energy.gov/eere/renewable-energy-siting-through-technical-engagement-and-planning. 57
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Sidebar 1 from the following sources: IPCC, 2022: Annex II: Definitions, Units and Conventions [Al Khourdajie, A., R. van Diemen, W.F. Lamb, M. Pathak, A. Reisinger, S. de la Rue du Can, J. Skea, R. Slade, S. Some, L. Steg (eds)]. In IPCC, 2022: Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [P.R. Shukla, J. Skea, R. Slade, A. Al Khourdajie, R. van Diemen, D. McCollum, M. Pathak, S. Some, P. Vyas, R. Fradera, M. Belkacemi, A. Hasija, G. Lisboa, S. Luz, J. Malley, (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA. doi: 10.1017/9781009157926.021 https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_Annex-II.pdf; United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, “Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change”, 10 December 1997, https://unfccc.int/documents/2409; Peter G. Simmonds et al., “The Increasing Atmospheric Burden of the Greenhouse Gas Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6)”, Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 20, no. 12 (23 June 2020): 7271-90, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-7271-2020; Sheng Zhou, Fei Teng and Qing Tong, “Mitigating Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6) Emission from Electrical Equipment in China”, Sustainability 10, no. 7 (July 2018): 2402, https://doi.org/10.3390/su10072402; US Department of Energy, “G7 Energy Ministers Achieve Breakthroughs on Unabated Coal Phaseout, Global Energy Storage, and Phasing Out Harmful Non-CO2 Pollutants”, 9 May 2024, https://www.energy.gov/articles/g7-energy-ministers-achieve-breakthroughs-unabated-coal-phaseout-global-energy-storage-and. 62
International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA),, “World Energy Transitions Outlook 2022”, 2022, https://www.irena.org/Digital-Report/World-Energy-Transitions-Outlook-2022; Lee Kasten, “Curtailment Is Not the Enemy”, pv magazine International, 15 February 2023, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2023/02/15/curtailment-is-not-the-enemy. Box 2 from the following sources: Wind Energy Ireland, “Blog: ‘Dispatch Down' and the Fight Against Climate Change”, 3 September 2019, https://windenergyireland.com/latest-news/2526-dispatch-down-and-the-fight-against-climate-change; IRENA, “Dynamic Line Rating: Innovation Landscape Brief”, 2020, https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2020/Jul/IRENA_Dynamic_line_rating_2020.pdf; Levente Rácz et al., “Performance Analysis of a Dynamic Line Rating System Based on Project Experiences”, Energies 15, no. 3 (January 2022): 1003, https://doi.org/10.3390/en15031003; F. Gülşen Erdinç et al., “A Comprehensive Overview of Dynamic Line Rating Combined with Other Flexibility Options from an Operational Point of View”, Energies 13, no. 24 (January 2020): 6563, https://doi.org/10.3390/en13246563; Manuel Hurtado et al., “Analysis of Wind Energy Curtailment in the Ireland and Northern Ireland Power Systems”, 2023, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/368508053_Analysis_of_Wind_Energy_Curtailment_in_the_Ireland_and_Northern_Ireland_Power_Systems/fulltext/63ec50d331cb6a6d1d02533b/Analysis-of-Wind-Energy-Curtailment-in-the-Ireland-and-Northern-Ireland-Power-Systems.pdf; Erin Schulte, “Korea's Jeju Island Is a Leader in Clean Energy. But It's Increasingly Having to Curtail Its Renewables”, Inside Climate News, 28 August 2023, https://insideclimatenews.org/news/28082023/korea-jeju-island-renewable-energy; Julian Spector, “A Huge Battery Has Replaced Hawaii's Last Coal Plant”, Canary Media, 10 January 2024, https://www.canarymedia.com/articles/energy-storage/a-huge-battery-has-replaced-hawaiis-last-coal-plant; National Grid ESO, “Draft Grid Code – Grid Forming Converter Specification”, 3 September 2020, https://www.nationalgrideso.com/document/159296/download; IRENA, “Grid Codes for Renewable Powered Systems”, 2022, https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2022/Apr/IRENA_Grid_Codes_Renewable_Systems_2022.pdf; Ben Kroposki et al., “Specifications for Grid-Forming Inverter-Based Resources”, UNIFI Consortium, 2023, https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2023-09/Specs%20for%20GFM%20IBRs%20Version%201.pdf; Florian Dörfler and Dominic Gross, “Control of Low-Inertia Power Systems”, Annual Review of Control, Robotics, and Autonomous Systems 6, no. 1 (3 May 2023): 415-445, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-control-052622-032657; Xiuqiang He et al., “Quantitative Stability Conditions for Grid-Forming Converters With Complex Droop Control”, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, 22 May 2024, https://doi.org/10.1109/TPEL.2024.3404251. 63
International Renewable Energy Agency, “World Energy Transitions Outlook 2022”, 2022, https://www.irena.org/Digital-Report/World-Energy-Transitions-Outlook-2022; Lee Kasten, “Curtailment Is Not the Enemy”, pv magazine International, 15 February 2023, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2023/02/15/curtailment-is-not-the-enemy. 64
Henry Storey, “Better Late Than Never: Vietnam Releases 2021-30 Power Plan”, Lowy Institute, 29 June 2023, https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/better-late-never-vietnam-releases-2021-30-power-plan. 65
Romain Zissler, “Curtailment Increases Across Japan: Economic Dispatch and Negative Prices Are Key Solutions”, Renewable Energy Institute, 11 April 2024, https://www.renewable-ei.org/en/activities/column/REupdate/20240411.php. 66
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Preface

Module Content

Annex

Preface

MODULE CONTENT

Annex

Preface

MODULE CONTENT

Annex

Preface

Module Content

Annex

Preface

Module Content

Annex

RENEWABLES 2024GLOBAL STATUS REPORT

Renewable Energy Systems and Infrastructure

Electricity Grids

KEY FACTS

FIGURE 2.Investment in Electricity Grid Infrastructure by Major Country/Region, 2022 and 2023

Sidebar 1. Reducing the Use of SF6 Gas to Improve the Climate Footprint of Power Grids

Dispatch Down of Renewables

Regional Interconnections

BOX 2. Reasons for the Dispatch Down of Renewables

Snapshot.SOUTH-EAST ASIA

Harnessing Cross-Border Synergies: The Lao PDR-Thailand-Malaysia-Singapore Power Integration Project and the ASEAN Power Grid Initiative

Harnessing Cross-Border Synergies: The Lao PDR-Thailand-Malaysia-Singapore Power Integration Project and the ASEAN Power Grid Initiative

Grid-Enhancing Technologies

Demand Flexibility and Time-Variant Network Charges

Virtual Power Plants

TABLE 1. Networked Capacity of Selected VPP Operators Worldwide, as of Late 2023

Microgrids

Footnotes

RENEWABLES 2024
GLOBAL STATUS REPORT

Renewable Energy Systems
and Infrastructure